Summer 2006 (14.2)
Pages 56-65

Politically Correct Music
Stalin's Era and the Struggle of Azerbaijani Composers
by Aida Huseinova

The last century of Azerbaijan's history of music has been marked by successful premieres and triumphal performances, but juxtaposed against those achievements are tragic stories of torment, censorship, and psychological pressure that many of the nation's prominent musicians faced during the Stalinist era (1920s to 1950s).

For decades, we proudly boasted of the tremendous success of Hajibeyov's "Koroghlu" [Son of a Blind Man]("Koroghlu" was composed by Uzeyir Hajibeyov and the libretto was written by Mammad Sayid Ordubadi [1872-1950].), which made its debut in the late 1930s. We were unaware that the opera by Uzeyir Hajibeyov (1885-1948) featuring the theme of the masses rising up in rebellion against feudal lords may have saved the composer's life.

Now we understand that political realities forced the composer to manipulate this theme, reconciling it with Communist ideology rather than follow the legendary reality of the region. (The enemy in Hajibeyov's Koroghlu is depicted as Turks, rather than Persians, as the legend holds forth. See "The Other Koroghlu: Tbilisi Manuscript Sheds Light on Medieval Azerbaijani Hero" by Dr. Farid Alakbarli. AI 10.1 (Spring 2002).

Yet the performance of Koroghlu became Azerbaijan's crowning glory at the Decade of Azerbaijan Art in Moscow in 1938. Stalin appeared in the audience and praised it. For Hajibeyov, it helped to ease some of anxiety he had felt for more than two decades when he was targeted for his "suspicious" pre-Soviet past, especially in relationship to his own involvement (along with his brother Jeyhun) with Azerbaijan's independence movement which led to the establishment of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (1918-1920) and with writing its National Anthem.

We used to lament the early death of the gifted jazz musician Parviz Rustambeyov, but we never revealed that he had been arrested for political reasons and died in prison.

Only now, after gaining independence from the Soviet Union in late 1991, have some of these documents been found in archives, which for so long have barred their tragic secrets from us. The truth they reveal has shocked many of us.

Radicalism of the 1920s
"On behalf of tomorrow, let us burn Rafael, destroy the museums and trample the flowers of art." This was one of the major slogans of some of the radical followers of the Communist ideology. Under the ideology referred to as Proletkult (proletarian culture), they declared war on the cultural heritage of all Soviet nations.

This radical attitude led to campaign attacks against two musical phenomena in Azerbaijan. First, the apologists of Proletkult began attacking the use of Azerbaijan's national instruments, specifically the tar, traditional stringed instrument, which had been used for centuries.

("Sing Tar, Sing". See the arguments related to eliminating tar music from the diaries of Dilbar Akhundzade whose husband Mikayil Mushfig (1908-1939) wrote the lines "Sing, Tar Sing" in AI 10.3 (Autumn 2002). Also see "'Sing Tar, Sing': Like Father, Like Son. Passing on the Tradition," by Betty Blair. AI 7.4, (Winter 1999).

Secondly, they began severely criticizing the genre of "mugham opera"(Mugham opera is a unique hybrid genre where the general concept obviously draws upon an opera: performers sing on stage accompanied by a symphony orchestra, and the entire composition is divided into several acts. However, all classical operatic forms are replaced with mughams-traditional modal music. The first performance of a mugham opera took place in 1908 with "Leyli and Majnun" by Uzeyir Hajibeyov and this work is referred to as the "First Opera in the Muslim East".

For a short history and synopsis of the first mugham opera, see, "Leyli & Majnun" in AI 9.3 (Autumn 2001) (See also HAJIBEYOV.com.) which was a synthesis of genres of West (opera) and East (Mugham or modal music)] which had been the first example of composed art music tradition in the country.

The first generation of national composers, notably Uzeyir Hajibeyov (1885-1948) and Muslim Magomayev (1885-1937), were personally attacked since their vision of the future development of Azerbaijani music integrated tar and mugham opera as its primary components. Had the Communists succeeded in reaching their goals by declaring this traditional instrument and this genre a relic of the past, and in convincing Azerbaijanis that these first national composers were incompetent, then the development of contemporary Azerbaijani music would today resemble a blank sheet of paper covered with red letters of Soviet history. Fortunately, this never happened.

The campaign against tar and mugham opera was led by the Minister of Culture Mustafa Guliyev, an arduous apologist for the Russification of Azerbaijani music. He involved politicians, journalists, writers and musicians in his attacks.

Left: Huseingulu Sarabski, Uzeyir Hajibeyov, Hanafi Teregulov and Muslim Magomayev. Around 1913-14.

Local newspapers wrote: "We need contemporary, cultured opera to serve as a vehicle to educate the working masses since the existing Azerbaijani opera does not meet such criteria. What kind of relationship can exist between a socialist culture and the Hajibeyov's musical comedy "Arshin Mal Alan" (The premiere of "Arshin Mal Alan" (Cloth Peddler) by Uzeyir Hajibeyov took place in 1913.

The story line is about a wealthy merchant desirous of seeing his merchandise before purchasing. Specifically, it meant that he wanted, at least, to have seen a glimpse of his future bride before deciding to marry her. In the early 20th century in Azerbaijan, tradition required that women be veiled. In reality, the comedy is a satire against repressive attitudes towards women in a traditional society) written in the times of Noah which depicts the life of wealthy merchants and landlords?" Their biased ideology concluded that "Uzeyir Hajibeyov and Muslim Magomayev were products of the bourgeois world."

As for the tar, according to Minister Guliyev, it "used to be popular at a time when it served the tastes of the elite circles of music. The masses did not need such a sophisticated instrument at all. As such, the tar does not - and cannot - have a future."

Heated arguments were not confined to intel lectuals. Mugham operas, such as Hajibeyov's "Leyli and Majnun" were excluded from the repertoire of the Azerbaijan Opera and Ballet Theater. Tars were publicly burned and broken. Some people were even afraid to keep them in their homes.

Incredible struggles were going on throughout the country, opposed by Uzeyir Hajibeyov and other Azerbaijani intellectuals, including such composers as Asaf Zeynalli (1909-1932) was the first Azerbaijani composer ever to get a professional music education in Azerbaijan. He graduated from the Azerbaijan State Conservatory (now Baku Music Academy).

Though he was very young when he died, he was extremely active and succeeded in introducing several music genres in Azerbaijan for the first time including the first national romance and the first symphonic music. His "Children's Suite" paved the way for further development of Azerbaijani music for children. Zeynalli was also very active in transcribing Azerbaijani folk songs) and Afrasiyab Badalbeyli(Afrasiyab Badalbeyli (1907-1976) is best remembered for having composed "Maiden's Tower", the first ballet in Azerbaijan (1940) who helped to defend the cultural heritage of the nation.

Such were the first intrusions of Soviet ideology into music matters. Fortunately, they didn't last long. The tar and mugham opera were returned to the musical life in Azerbaijan by the early 1930s. However, the next decade brought little hope for optimism.


Era of Repressions -1930s

Left: Khadija Gayibova (1893-1938) with hand on face. She was also an extremely active administrator and became the Founder of Courses on Eastern Music (Eastern Conservatory). She also made herself vulnerable by advocating strong ideas regarding the further development of Azerbaijani music along an "Eastern stream" with the establishment of an Eastern Conservatory in the early 1920s. Such tendencies could easily be interpreted as nationalistic, which were clearly forbidden. Gayibova was arrested during the purges of 1937-38 and sentenced to 10 years of hard labor. For some unknown reason, however, she was executed in the NKVD prison.

The horror of Stalinist repression gripped the country in the 1930s, when tens of thousands of Azerbaijanis-including scientists, writers, poets, artists, religious leaders, engineers, military officials, government and even Communist Party officials-were arrested.

Typically, they were ostracized from society because the government branded them as "Enemies of the People" and threatened anybody who befriended them with the same treatment.

"Trials" were usually carried out in the presence of a "troika" (trio) of three representatives of NKVD (Narodnyi Kommissariat Vnutrennikh Del-forerunner of the KGB) and usually lasted less than 15 to 20 minutes. Rarely was there any defense offered for the accused person. Rarely, was the accused person even present. Hundreds of people were arrested each day, many to be executed, exiled or sent to labor camps in Siberia. Many died of hunger or from the severe cold climatic conditions.

Credit belongs to Farah Aliyeva for being the first musicologist to delve into the issue of Stalin's repressions in Azerbaijani music. (See "XX Asr Azerbaijan Musigisi - Totalitar Zaman Kasiyinda" (20th Century Azerbaijani Music at the Crossroads during the Totalitarian Era) in Musigi Dunyasi, No. 3-4 (17), 2003: pages 13-33.)

Above: (Left) Mikayil Azafli (1924-78), one of Azerbaijan's prominent ashugs, was arrested in 1938, at the age of 14 for accidentally spilling ink on Stalin's portrait during a drawing lesson at school. Azafli was immediately taken to the NKVD. As he knew the prison layout, he was able to escape, although later he was captured and arrested two more times -1941 and 1945-46 - for the same "crime".

(Right): Minister of Culture Mustafa Guliyev, an arduous apologist for the Russification of Azerbaijani music involved politicians, journalists, writers and musicians in his attacks against tar and mugham opera. His criticism of the contemporary state of Azerbaijani music suddenly came to be interpreted as an underestimation of the benefits of the Socialist epoch. He was arrested in 1938 and executed shortly afterwards, sharing the fate of those whom he had attacked earlier.

Left: Mammadkhan Bakikhanov and (Below): Ahmad Bakikhanov, brothers who were distinguished as professional tar players. (Ahmad was the father of composer Tofig Bakikhanov). As the Bakikhanov family had Iranian roots, they chose to perform Iranian mughams, which was interpreted as a sign of pro-Iranian political orientation and their involvement in spying for Iran. The brothers both spent nearly a year in prison and were released only when composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov pleaded with Mir Jafar Baghirov, head of the Communist Party in Azerbaijan, to free these these musicians.

Photos from the KGB archives, which have recently been published, lay bare the horrors of that epoch even more vividly than the texts of what transpired during those interrogations. Despair, confusion and pain are written across the faces of these innocent victims, exposing the tortures and humiliation, which they suffered.
Those arrested were charged with various behaviors that were considered to be crimes including anti-Soviet activities, pan-Turkism, pan-Islamism, or spying for foreign intelligence services.

The true reasons why they were targeted could usually be traced to family wealth, anti-Russian or anti-Communist activities during the pre-Soviet era, having relatives who were living abroad; befriending foreigners, or carrying out professional activities, which somehow challenged communist ideology. Even the slightest sentiment that countered

Soviet ideology expressed privately, even through humor, could land one in prison. Sometimes, people were vilified purely out of personal revenge, as has come to light in regard to some of the high-ranking officials, such as Mir Jafar Baghirov, who had been appointed as Azerbaijan's First Secretary of the Communist Party and served as Stalin's right hand.

Gallery of sadness
Almost all these criminal activities listed above could have been used as an excuse to arrest pianist Khadija Gayibova (1893-1938). She was also an extremely active administrator and became the Founder of Courses on Eastern Music (Eastern Conservatory) as well as the Music and Drama Studio for Turkic Women.

She also chaired the Department of Eastern Music of Narkompros (Narodnyi Komissariat Prosvesheniia in Russian, which means "People's Commissariat of Enlightenment").

Gayibova was born into the Muftizade family, members of which held high Muslim clerical ranks. She later married Gayibzade, the son of the Head of All Muslims of Southern Caucasus.
Her brother Mammad Muftizade was living in Turkey.

All these conditions were sufficient enough to get her arrested. In addition, Gayibova made herself vulnerable by advocating strong ideas regarding the further development of Azerbaijani music along an "Eastern stream" with the establishment of an Eastern Conservatory in the early 1920s. Such tendencies could easily be interpreted as nationalistic, which were clearly forbidden.

As an open-minded, sociable person, Gayibova often held parties and invited the music elite of Baku to her residence, including Uzeyir Hajibeyov, Tarist Gurban Primov (1880-1965) and singer Bulbul (1897-1961), as well as guest musicians, such as Reinhold Gliere, Vladimir Gorovitz, Egon Petry and Nathan Milstein.

Musicians were not the only guests who frequented Gayibova's home. In 1918-1920 prior to the Bolshevik takeover in Azerbaijan, Musavat Party leaders were invited to her home, as were both English and Turkish military officials who had come to Baku to stave off the Russian invasion. Such associations turned out to be fatal.

Gayibova was first arrested in 1933, but because of lack of evidence of any criminal behavior, she was released. However, during the repression years of 1937-1938, Gayibova was again arrested and this time was sentenced to 10 years of hard labor. For some unknown reason, however, she was shot in the NKVD prison. Those who shared her prison cell said that Gayibova kept repeating in despair: "I could have done so many things"(Gulrena Mirza, "Pervyie zhenshiny-pianistki Azerbaijana" (Azerbaijan's first female pianist), Azerbaijan IRS, no.4-5, 2000, 146).

Left: Music Comedies by composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov, such as "Mashadi Ibad" (featured here) and "Arshin Mal Alan" (The Cloth Peddler), which were extremely popular in the Pre-Revolutionary period (before 1920) were deemed during the Soviet period to reflect bourgeois culture and were severely criticized when, in fact, these works satirized many of the superficial values and backwardness of the traditions of early 20th century in Azerbaijan, particularly attitudes toward women, marriage, education and religion.

Other musicians shared the same fate. For example, Panfiliya Tanailidi (1892-1937), an actress and singer who performed the major roles in some of Hajibeyov's musical stage works, was eventually arrested for "spying for Iran" and shot. Her tragic fate can be traced to two situations: her close friendship with "Enemies of the People", occasionally meeting an old friend and Iranian citizen in Baku, and passing out Iranian cigarettes to friends after touring there.

"Dangerous family links" was the excuse for arresting Abbas Mirza Sharifzade (1893-1938). As Director of the Azerbaijan Opera Theater, he staged most of the pre-Soviet Azerbaijani operas and operettas and, indeed, played leading roles in many of them. (Read about Sharifzade's arrest: "Reviving the Memory of Silenced Voices: Actor Abbas Mirza Sharifzade" by Azad Sharifov. AI 6.1 (Spring 1998).

His brother, Gulamreza Sharifzade was an active member of Musavat Party and thus had fled Azerbaijan when the Bolsheviks came. This was sufficient "evidence" to justify shooting Abbas Mirza accusing him of anti-Soviet activities and spying for Iran and Turkey.

Parviz Rustambeyov (1922-1949), an outstanding Azerbaijani jazz musician, clarinetist and saxophonist, was among the last innocent musicians of Stalin's terrible massacre. Jazz music had always remained under strong suspicion during the Soviet era.

Abbas Mirza Sharifzade (1893-1938), Director of the Azerbaijan Opera Theater, was arrested for "dangerous family links". He had staged most of the pre-Soviet Azerbaijani operas and operettas and, often played the leading role. His brother, Gulamreza Sharifzade had been an active member of Musavat Party who organized the government during the short-lives Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan (ADR) and thus had fled Azerbaijan when the Bolsheviks came. This was sufficient "evidence" to justify executing Sharifzade on charges of anti-Soviet activities and spying for Iran and Turkey.

Singer Jahan Talishinskaya (1909-67) found herself in a similar situation. Two family members had been accused of being "Enemies of the People"-her sister and brother-in-law Khalid Said Hojayev, who was a well-known scholar and Turkologist. This association alone provided sufficient reason to pass over her and not allow her to participate at the "Decade of Azerbaijani Art and Literature" in Moscow in 1938. She was later exiled to Kazakhstan. Fortunately, she survived and was able to return to Azerbaijan after Stalin's death in 1953.

Outspokenness also sealed the fates of a number of musicians, including Sergey Paniyev (1884-?) (According to F. Aliyeva, the date of Paniyev's death has not been identified), who was the Music Director of the Baku Russian Workers Theater as well as the Chairman of the Union of Azerbaijani Composers. The KGB's damning evidence against him included passing remarks he had made, even about the cafeteria food: "Once we had lunch in the canteen in Baksovet (Bakinskii Sovet, meaning Executive Power of Baku or City Hall) with Paniyev. After mentioning the very poor quality of the soup, Paniyev added that it seemed to have been cooked according to the Party's program."(Farah Aliyeva, "XX asr Azerbaijan musigisi," 20).

Another witness had testified: "In 1936, when discussing the article in Pravda criticizing Shostakovich, (Shostakovich was the main target for Stalin's 1948 campaign against "formalism" in Soviet music. In fact, this was an attempt to isolate Soviet music from the mainstream on 20th century music. Shostakovich was dismissed from professorship at the Moscow Conservatory and singled out. People were frightened to associate or even talk to him). Paniyev expressed his frustration and anger, giving rein to statements against the Party's main publishing body." (Farah Aliyeva, "XX asr Azerbaijan musigisi," 20.)

Likewise, Mikayil Azafli (1924-78), one of Azerbaijan's prominent ashugs, was arrested in 1938, at the age of 14 for spilling ink accidentally on Stalin's portrait during a drawing lesson at school. Azafli was immed12iately taken to the NKVD (Ali Kafkasiyali in "Mikayil Azafli: Hayati, Sanati, Asarlari" (Mikayil Azafli: Life, Career, Works) Erzurum: Eser Ofset, 1996). As he knew the prison layout, he was able to escape, although later he was captured and arrested two more times-1941 and 1945-46-for the same "crime".

Playing the "wrong" type of music could also have dangerous implications for those who dared it. The only fault of the two distinguished Azerbaijani tar players, brothers Ahmad and Mammad Bakikhanov, was that they chose to perform Iranian mughams. As the Bakikhanov family had Iranian roots, this was interpreted as a sign of pro-Iranian political orientation and, their involvement in spying for this neighboring country. Both of these musicians spent nearly a year in a jail and were released only when Uzeyir Hajibeyov pleaded with Mir Jafar Baghirov to show mercy on these outstanding musicians.

Predictably at a certain point, the repression engine began to implode in upon itself and started to swallow its own executors. This happened to Mustafa Guliyev, who had initiated campaigns against the tar and mugham opera in the 1920s.

His criticism of the contemporary state of Azerbaijani music suddenly came to be interpreted as an underestimation of the benefits of the Socialist epoch. Arrested in 1938 and executed shortly afterwards, Mustafa Guliyev shared the fate of those whom he had attacked earlier.

The campaign against the "Enemies of the People" continued until Stalin's death in 1953. Parviz Rustambeyov (1922-1949), an outstanding Azerbaijani jazz musician, clarinetist and saxophonist, was among the last innocent musicians of Stalin's terrible massacre. Jazz music had always remained under strong suspicion during the Soviet era. One of the famous Communist slogans of the Stalinist era was: "Today, he is playing jazz; tomorrow, he will betray the country!"

In 1944, Parviz was invited to join the orchestra of the famous Polish jazz trumpeter Eddie Rosner (1910-1976)(Eddie Rosner gained acclaim for his trumpet playing and ability to play two trumpets at once. His career could have been in jeopardy as a Jew after the invasion of Poland by the Nazis, but he fled to the Soviet Union, which at that time embraced jazz. Hence, he initially achieved an equally glowing reception in the USSR as he had in France. Joseph Stalin even called to say he enjoyed his performance for him. This led to his being made the head of the Soviet Jazz Orchestra for a time. After the war this all changed.

By 1946 Stalin became increasingly hostile to Jews and foreigners and Rosner fell into disfavor and was sent to the Gulag prisons on charges of treason with a 10-year sentence. He continued to perform in the Gulag, however, and was allowed to use, or be used, to lift the spirits of those interned. He was released in 1953 after Stalin died. He returned to his native Berlin in 1973 and died there in poverty three years later [Wikipedia, May 22, 2006]).This was the starting point for his enormous popularity all over the Soviet Union. Some even referred to him as the "Soviet Benny Goodman". Later Parviz established his own orchestra and played in Baku cinemas. In January 1949, he was dismissed for "worshipping the West," and in May 1949, he was arrested. The official charge against him stated: "Parviz Rustambeyov is an anti-Soviet and pro-American personality." He was sentenced to 15 years of prison; however, on the day of his trial, he died in his prison cell under highly suspicious circumstances.

Azerbaijanis never stop lamenting about the innocent victims of repressions. However, it is obvious that the losses that the Azerbaijani culture experienced during those years could have been much more catastrophic. The terror of the Stalinist period could have touched many outstanding musicians of Azerbaijan, such as the composer and conductor Niyazi, who maintained friendly relations with many Azerbaijani intellectuals, who themselves were later accused of being "Enemies of the People".

Niyazi's success at the "Decade of Azerbaijani Culture and Art" in Moscow in 1938 when he conducted the opera "Nargiz" by Muslim Magomayev stood him in good defense. As Nelli Alakbarova reveals in her book about Niyazi: (Nelli Alakbarova in "Jizn v muzyke" (The Life in Music) Moscow: Klassika, 2001). "Stalin turned to the people around him and said: "Such a rare gift! Take care of this young man!" Later, half-joking, half-seriously, Mir Jafar Baghirov used to tease Niyazi: "If it weren't for Stalin's words, your bones would have disintegrated long ago!"

"Censored!"
In the 1930s, during which time such a cruel repressive mechanism was in high gear, the Soviets established an even more subtle-or, perhaps, less visible-system of guiding art and culture. The intense polemics where various viewpoints were expressed openly in the media and in forums were gradually eliminated.

From then on, the substance of matters related to music were discussed behind closed doors in the respective departments of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, Ministry of Culture, Union of Composers, Committee of the State Security (KGB), Committee of the People's Control (Narodnyi Control) and the Main Department on the Literature and Art Affairs (Glavlit).

All of these organizations were responsible for strict control over all spheres of the cultural life in the country in terms of their meeting the ideological agenda and criteria of "Socialist Realism"-the main cultural doctrine of the Soviets.

Composers were required to get official approval for the lyrical content of vocal music intended for the stage; otherwise, their work would end up as a "dead project". Concert organizations and media had to be cautious about the content of public performances. Censorship penetrated all aspects of musical and cultural life in the country.
This odd combination of social and aesthetical matters-"Socialist Realism"-that defined the main tenets of Soviet cultural doctrine was introduced in 1932. All Soviet art and literature had to serve three criteria of this concept: (1) Party spirit (partinost), (2) direct revelation of national roots (narodnost) and (3) realism.

"Partinost" meant appraising Communist ideology and the belief in a happy and prosperous future. "Narodnost" required direct revelation of national roots, frequent use of folk melodies, generally speaking, deriving music style from folklore. "Realism" pointed at the necessity to feature realistic images, rather than using metaphoric expressions that might conceive political non-reliability.

Musicians, naturally, had more flexibility to maneuver within this doctrine, due to the non-verbal nature of their art, especially when they are compared to writers and graphic artists. Still, this infamous triad formed the basis for composers, musicologists and performers, as well as music critics. Despite how absurd it may sound, even traditional and folk music had to meet the criteria of "Socialist Realism". The past had to be re-evaluated to serve the new ideology.

One of the most typical ways of applying partinost to composers' works referred to slight modifying something that was well-known. All Azerbaijani composers who wanted to write music based on literary sources of the past were conscious of the necessity of these "ideological injections". The opera Koroghlu by Hajibeyov was among the first examples of this trend.

The doctrine of a Socialist Realism was verbalized in 1932, right at the time when Hajibeyov began his work on Koroghlu. A frequent motif emphasized the class struggle between the poor peasant class and wealthy shahs and khans. This modification is clearly seen when one compares Hajibeyov's version to another the same legend as rendered by Turkish composer Adnan Saygun (1972). Saygun's opera focuses on deep lyricism and psychological issues, whereas Hajibeyov's work relates more to the heroic epic genre. Still, Hajibeyov succeeded in creating high quality artistic work, and nowadays the score composed for Koroghlu sounds as contemporary as it did decades ago.

"Politically correct" opera
The concept for Muslim Magomayev's (1885-1937) opera entitled "Nargiz" became totally distorted due to the intrusion of ideological matters. When the composer began writing the libretto, he had a clear idea of the direction in which he wanted to develop the story line. It would be a "love triangle" in the spirit of old legends and folktales where two ill-fated young lovers-Nargiz and Alyar-were separated by the wealthy landlord Aghalarbey. But then politics interfered in quite an incredible way: Nargiz and Alyar were identified as Communists, and Aghalarbey became a member of the opposition-in this case, the Musavat Party. At the end of the story, the youthful and innocent beauty Nargiz was made to shoot two(!) antagonists: Aghalarbey and Bedal, another Musavatist!

Such a corruption of the main character obviously spoiled the entire narrative, given the fact that the initial version still remained translucent under these artificialities. Logically, even the musical development also happened to be stratified into lyrical and political layers. Some episodes were clearly lyrical, depicting the intense passion of the main characters. Other sections of the opera are marked by abrupt and, often, illogical elaborations based on didactic politics. Obviously, the lyrical parts dominated. Some of the first reviewers of the opera's premiere mentioned that the music didn't quite match the revolutionary plot, and that the main characters were focused on love, rather than on the social struggle.

The evidence of such crude interference in the creative process can be discovered in the archives of composer Muslim Magomayev, which I spent years researching at the Institute of Manuscripts in Baku. The manuscripts of the libretto for his opera "Nargiz" are covered with comments by Ali Ibrahimov, the Head of the Department of Literature and Art in the Central Committee of the Communist Party. It is obvious that Ibrahimov was not concerned about keeping the originality of Magomayev's concept. His major concern was to provide the ideological correctness of the plot.

For instance, the following critical remark was written in the margin next to the love duet of Nargiz and Alyar: "replace with an appeal to all the masses and develop on the revolutionary theme". Nargiz' Aria in the First Act was marked: "Develop a revolutionary spirit."

This was typical of the governmental censorship that Azerbaijani and other Soviet composers faced throughout their careers, and even much more after the Stalinist era (1953-1991). Enormous creativity and enormous doses of diplomacy were needed to defend a composer's initial concepts.

Even after Magomayev died in 1937, his opera suffered from experimentation, both in regard to its content as well as its music style. For example, a character named Jafar was introduced into the script. He was a worker from Baku who arrived in the village to help the peasants. Some people suggest that the name of this new character was an attempt to flatter Mir Jafar Baghirov.

Ironically, after Stalin died and Mir Jafar was tried and executed, having such a character in the opera accelerated the process of causing "Nargiz" to be removed from the repertoire of the Opera Theater. The situation in regard to "Nargiz" is, indeed, tragic, since this opera is no longer part of the national opera repertoire.

Magomayev's work definitely needs to be re-edited from its imposed Soviet ideological clichés and returned to the stage-just as two other music stage works have already been: the opera "Sevil" by Fikrat Amirov and the ballet "Maiden's Tower" by Afrasiyab Badalbeyli. In the late 1990s, two prominent musicians of Azerbaijan, pianist Farhad Badalbeyli and composer Musa Mirzoyev, carefully removed all obviously Soviet ideological injections from the plots of both works, and now "Sevil" and "Maiden's Tower" fully meet contemporary social realities. (Maiden's Tower Ballet: New Plot Rids Soviet Propaganda, AI 7.4 (Winter 1999). Search at AZER.com).

Fate of traditional music
One of the jokes that used to circulate was that the Soviet Union was "a country with an unpredictable past". A set of measures had been brought to life to reconcile artistic forms of the past with requirements of the communist ideology. Some forms of traditional and folk music were prohibited or severely discriminated against, while others had only to be slightly modified to align themselves with the dogmas of Socialist Realism.

Ashug (Ashugs are minstrels who accompany themselves on the traditional stringed instrument saz. See "Music of the Bards: So You Want to Become an Ashug" by Anna Oldfield Senarslan. AI 12.4 (Winter 2004). Search AZER.com) music happened to be one of the least problematic in this regard. This genre has always been more connected to contemporary life, so that it had the flexibility to reflect the new realities of the Soviet era. Beginning immediately in the early 1920s, compositions were dedicated to Lenin, Stalin, and Communism and, therefore, became an indispensable part of ashug performances along with traditional epic sources. This immediately earned ashugs the reputation of being somewhat privileged among traditional musicians in the country. The Soviets encouraged ashug performances and even established a form of their assemblies to gather musicians from all regions of Azerbaijan. The First Assembly of Azerbaijani Ashugs was held in Baku in 1936.

Meykhana is an improvised, rhythmic verbal poetic form, much like the modern Western genre "rap". See "Meykhana: Azerbaijan's Own Ancient Version of Rap Reappears" by Balasadig. Meykhana and forms of religious music happened to be among severely criticized forms of music. Meykhana, a kind of rhythmic recitative poetry, performed mostly in Baku and nearby villages contained many sensitive points in terms of the Soviets' ideological agenda.

First of all, since Meykhana is improvisational by nature, this horrified the regime which was totalitarian and sought control of everything. That the improvisation related to verse, rather than music, aggravated the situation and made it even more dangerous. Its free literary content allowed the expression of any idea, including anti-Soviet ones. This last characteristic was very problematic as Meykhana, unlike mugham, focuses on routine everyday life rather than sophisticated philosophical matters.

As such, Soviets labeled Meykhana as a "primitive" genre, not worthy of being performed in public. However, during World War II, Meykhana enjoyed a revival in the musical life of Azerbaijanis as these verses generally helped people to cope with dire times. In addition, many meykhanas were created against Fascists and served to rally the soldiers. (This was mentioned in the first ever book about "Meykhana" ever published in Azerbaijan: Aytaj Rahimova, Azerbaijan musigisinda meykhana janri (Genre of Meykhana in Azerbaijani Music) Baku: Nurlan, 2002, 3).

All forms of religious music were totally forbidden, particularly "Shabih", which is a religious mystery about sufferings of Imam Husein. This was crude invasion into objective processes, since shabih had caused serious impact on the art music tradition in the country, particularly, in relationship to the concept of mugham opera. The first ever opera in Azerbaijan, "Leyli and Majnun" by Uzeyir Hajibeyov contains many features of shabikh, first of all, in the way of using choruses.

An anti-religious campaign was launched in relationship to the traditional music of Azerbaijan. The lyrics of mughams, songs and ashug's dastans were carefully censored to prevent manifestation of religious feelings.

Dastans (traditional epic compositions), which had been created to describe the Prophet Mohammad, were totally excluded from ashugs' repertoire. Gazals (poetic verses) appealing to Allah were prohibited as literary sources for mugham. The word "Allah" was replaced with neutral terms or even politicized statements in the lyrics of folk songs as well. For example, in the familiar folksong called "Bari Bakh", the traditional appeal to "Allah" has been substituted in the Soviet version with "People".

Ay, Bari Bakh (Hey, Look at Me!)
(Folk version)
If you are allowed to marry me,
Hey, look at me, look at me,
Allah will like it, too,
Hey look at me, look at me.

Sani mana versalar,
Ay bari bakh, bari bakh,
Allaha da khosh galar
Ay bari bakh, bari bakh.

(Censored version during Soviet times)
If you are allowed to marry me,
Hey, look at me, look at me,
People will like it.
Hey, look at me, look at me

Sani mana versalar,
Ay bari bakh, bari bakh,
El-obaya khosh galar
Ay bari bakh, bari bakh.

These severe storms related to Soviet cultural policy bypassed the traditional genre of mugham- Azerbaijan's treasure trove of musical tradition that dates back centuries. This was, indeed, an astounding and still is an inconceivable fact. The only possible reason was that the Soviets hesitated to take on radical measures towards this genre, which was held in such high regard in society and was dearly loved by the people.

However, certain decisions were undertaken that changed the nature of the content of Azerbaijani mugham. For instance, performers were required to focus on Soviet literary sources such as the verses of Aliagha Vahid, Samad Vurghun, Suleyman Rustam, and later Bahtiyar Vahabzade, or Islam Safarli, rather than the classical gazals of the 12th-19th centuries, which had been written by Nizami, Fuzuli, Nasimi, and the poetess Natavan.

What also disturbed the Soviets about mugham (According to Hajibeyov, each of seven major Azerbaijani mughams induces certain mood. For instance, Rast creates a feeling of courage and cheerfulness, Shur causes a joyful lyrical mood, Segah is associated with love, Chahargah induced excitement and expressiveness, Bayati Shiraz is melancholic, Shushtar is sad, and Humayun is mournful.

Although, the number of distinct mughams is much larger, however, all of them are somehow related to any of these seven families) was its use of typical motifs of sadness and melancholy. As such, mughams distinguished by optimism and courage, such as Heyrati or Simayi Shams were immediately elevated to the top of traditional music hierarchy in the Soviet Azerbaijan. Conversely, mughams, which were said to evoke sad feelings, were more or less vetoed, such as Shushtar, Khumayun, Rahab, Choban Bayati, Zamin Khara, Mahur, or Kasma Shikasta.

Sega and other similar-sounding mughams were prohibited during World War II as they were sad to induce feelings of sadness, which were considered to be inappropriate at that time. This policy continued throughout the Soviet period of music history of Azerbaijan. This "Segregation Law" resulted in an imbalanced development of the art of mugham in the Soviet Azerbaijan. Performers more often elaborated on cheerful mughams, so that music-wise they are now on a more advanced level if we compare them to the Mugham of a century ago. However, Azerbaijani mughams, which expressed a sadder, gloomier atmosphere both in regard to intonation and structure wise, remain on the same relatively simpler level that they had been during the early 1920s.

Despite all these hardships, most of genres of traditional music that were outlawed during the Soviet period did not die out, but continued to exist in the Soviet Azerbaijan. There was never a time that Meykhanas were not performed in the Baku region. And despite the fact that mughams were discouraged from time to time, they were being performed within narrow circles of music lovers.

However, it is obvious that natural processes in the development of traditional music have been distorted. Negative consequences of this process are still being felt.

History cannot be rewritten. All these stories and struggles comprise the history of Azerbaijani music and culture. But thanks to the courage and strength of some of our illustrious musicians and composers, our music today still maintains its deep links to our cultural heritage of the past.

See HAJIBEYOV.com (a Website created by Azerbaijan International Magazine "to celebrate the legacy of Azerbaijan's Great Composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov (1885-1948)".
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Other articles by Aida Huseinova
Search at AZER.com.

(1) "Shostakovich's Tenth Symphony - The Azerbaijani Link: Elmira Nazirova", AI 11.1 (Spring 2003).
(2) "Gara Garayev's 85th Jubilee", AI 11.1 (Spring 2003).
(3) "Arif Malikov, Composer - Symphonic Music Built Upon Legend and Imagination"(Interview with Aida Huseinova), AI 13.1 (Spring 2005).
(4) "Celebrating 75 Years: Lutfiyar Imanov Reminisces about His Opera Career", AI 11.2 (Summer 2003).
(5) "Agshin Alizade - New Ballet: Journey to the Caucasus". Published in AI 10.4 (Winter 2002).
(6) "Muslim Magomayev Celebrates 60th Jubilee", AI 10.3 (Autumn 2002).

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